chernozem soils

Chernozem soils are rich in calcium, which appears in excess in calcium carbonate precipitated in the lower B-horizon or just beneath the B-horizon. It has been noted that chernozem soils develop in parent material rich in calcium carbonate. The origin and distribution of chernozems soils have long attracted the soil scientist. Chernozem soils are important in the United States and Canada, where they form a north-south belt starting in Alberta and Saskatchewan and running through the Great Plains of the United States to central Texas. A similar area lies in Argentina. Other areas are mapped in Australia and Manchuria.

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Transportation in Asia

There are more than 30 countries in Asia today. Many have changed their names or forms of government since World War II. Some, like Israel, did not even exist before the war. People in United States and Europe are able to travel quickly from one place to another, even when the places are hundreds of miles apart. Transportation is abundant and there are many good roads, railroads, and airlines to choose from.

In Asia transportation and travel is very different. Asia has extremes of surface and climate, so that overland travel is often difficult. High mountains, plateaus, deserts, and jungles make it almost impossible to build roads and railroads in many places.

Few railroads go directly from one country to another. Many people in Asia have never seen or traveled on a railroad. In fact most of them have never traveled more than a few miles from the tiny villages where they were born.
Some countries do have good railroads. India's railway lines were built by the British. Japan, too, as many fine railroads. Highways are even fewer than railroads in Asia. Southwest Asia has no paved roads leading to southern Asia. There are some trails leading north from India through the mountains of Tibet or China but they are not suitable for modern vehicles. Only one surfaced road, built recently by the Chinese, connects Nepal with Tibet.
Fortunately, in recent years there has been rapid growth in air transportation in Asia. Several major airlines not connect countries of Southern Asia with Europe and the United States. Airlines make regular stops at Manila, Hong Kong, Tokyo, Bombay, Taipei, and Beijing. But the central part of Asia has little air service, just as it has few roads or railroads.

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Climate of Asia

Asia stretches about 5,000 miles from north of the Arctic Circle to south of the equator. From east to west Asia stretches nearly halfway around the world. This vast area has many different kinds of climate. Asia has some of the coldest and some of the hottest, some of the wettest and some of the driest places on earth.
The great interior lands of Asia are far from the ocean. Winds from the oceans cut off by the high mountain chains which surround the interior. Because of this, the climate of central Asia is one of extremes. Winters are long and cold, chilled by cold winds from the polar regions. Summers everywhere but the highlands are short and hot. Except in the mountains, there is little rainfall. Consequently, much of the region is desert.
Northern Asia has much the same sort of climate as central Asia, except that is has more rainfall. Winters are extremely cold-the coldest inhabited place in the world is a village in Siberia called Verkhoyansk. The temperature there sometimes drops to 90 degrees below zero.
In southern Asia the climate is quite different. Here is is hot all year round, except in the mountains. The temperature in the lowlands may reach as high as 125 degrees. There are no summer and winter as we know them. Instead, there is a rainy season and a dry season.
The rainy season usually lasts from June through October. During that period it rains heavily everyday. More rain falls in this part of the Asia than in any other place in the world. Some areas in India get more than 450 inches of rainfall during the rainy season.
The rainy and dry seasons are caused by winds called monsoons, which blow from central Asia toward the southern and eastern edges of the continent. Winter monsoons are dry winds because they blow over dry land. They are cold because they come from a cold region. The summer monsoons blow inland from the oceans, bringing moisture as far inland as they reach.
The rainy season is very important to the millions of people who live in southern and eastern Asia. This is the reason when they planted the crops on which they depend for their food. Without the rains the plants will not grow. Drought brings famine, and thousands of people starve. Sometimes the monsoons are late, and crops cannot be planted in time to ripen. Sometimes the monsoons bring floods.
Southwestern Asia is another very dry region. Summers there are long and very hot. Winters are relatively mild except in the far interior. In certain areas of southwestern Asia, winter is the rainy season. It is also the growing season, because crops would die in the hot, dry summers.
Climate has a great influence on the way people live. For example, the people of northern Siberia live in a region of long, extremely cold winters and short summers. The soil is permanently frozen beneath the surface, making farming impossible. The natives of northern Siberia must depend for their living on hunting and fishing.

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Seismic waves

There are two general categories of seismic waves.

1. P-waves, which are longitudinal pressure waves and can propagate in both solids and liquids.
2. S-waves, which are transverse waves that can propagate in solids but not in liquids

                                                                                                                                                               

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Geographic Information System (GIS)

A geographic information system (GIS) can be defined, very simply, as a computerized mapping system linked to a large “database” of various kinds of land and property information. At the touch of a few buttons, a GIS can graphically display requested information (on maps), and it can also sort and tabulate large quantities of data in number or text form. A GIS has applications in geography, landscape architecture, transportation, environmental science and urban planning, or any subject that can be related to land. This is because attributes about features such as soil types, land contours, aquifers or land uses can be represented graphically on a map and described as part of a database. At the Planning Commission, GIS is used to track land information, including land use and zoning. Simple queries can be made to the GIS, such as, “What are the addresses of the churches in Planning District 8?”

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Ozone depletion linked to Climate change

The ozone hole is changing the atmospheric flow in the high latitudes, the new study demonstrated that the ozone hole is able to influence the tropical circulation and increase rainfall at low latitudes in the Southern Hemisphere. Ozone depletion, an upper atmospheric phenomenon confined to the polar regions, has been linked to climate change from the pole to the equator.





Save Energy... Save Earth...

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Earth Day

Earth Day is one of two observances, both held annually during spring in the northern hemisphere, and autumn in the southern hemisphere. These are intended to inspire awareness of and appreciation for the Earth's environment. The United Nations celebrates an Earth Day each year on the March equinox, a tradition which was founded by peace activist John McConnell in 1969. A second Earth Day, which was founded by U.S. Senator Gaylord Nelson as an environmental teach-in in 1970, is celebrated in many countries each year on April 22. On the 22nd of April, 1970, Earth Day marked the beginning of the modern environmental movement.

Save Earth its the only Planet we have.....

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El Nino and La Nina

El Nino is caused by the periodic shift in wind speed and direction in the tropical eastern Pacific which leads to changes in sea Surface temperatures. In what scientists call El Niño events, prevailing easterly winds weaken or give way to westerly winds, and the normal upwelling process, which brings cool, nutrient-rich waters up from lower levels of the ocean, stops.

This causes sea surface temperatures to rise, providing an unfavorable habitat for many sea animals and fish. The warmer ocean conditions can also lead to more rainfall and floods along the west coast of the Americas. A stronger easterly wind flow, on the other hand, can increase upwelling and make the sea surface temperatures even colder, producing La Nina. Both phenomena can have far-reaching weather effects. For example, strong El Niño events often result in a weak Atlantic Ocean hurricane season; La Nina events can spell drought, even for normally dry California.

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laws of pollution

Various laws has been established to curb the menace of air pollution

      - Policy statement for Abatement of Pollution, 1992.

      - National Conservation Strategy & Policy statement on environment & development,1992.

      - Air (Prevention & control of pollution)Act, 1981

      - Air (Prevention & control of pollution ) Act,1981

      - The government is trying to remove the use of leaded petrol, a major cause of air pollution.

      - the industrial acts are implemented to control the harmful emission of gases.

      - the natural management team is is hardcore work to minimise the effect of various natural disaster like    

         forest fire, volcanic erruption that are causes of airr pollution.

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Thermal pollution

The broadest definition of thermal pollution is the degradation of water quality by any process that changes ambient water temperature. Thermal pollution is usually associated with increases of water temperatures in a stream, lake, or ocean due to the discharge of heated water from industrial processes, such as the generation of electricity. Increases in ambient water temperature also occur in streams where shading vegetation along the banks is removed or where sediments have made the water more turbid . Both of these effects allow more energy from the sun to be absorbed by the water and thereby increase its temperature. There are also situations in which the effects of colder-than-normal water temperatures may be observed. For example, the discharge of cold bottom water from deep-water reservoirs behind large dams has changed the downstream biological communities in systems such as the Colorado River.


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Polar sun synchronous satellite

Polar sun synchronous satellite
An orbit in which the satellite's orbital plane is at a fixed orientation to the sun, i.e., the orbit precesses about the earth at the same rate that the earth orbits the sun. It has the characteristics of maintaining similar sun angles along its ground trace for all orbits, and typically has an inclination from 96 to 98 degrees, depending on the orbit altitude and orbit shape (eccentricity).


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Natural stellite

Natural stellite is a celestial body not made by man, that orbits a planet, a star, or a smaller body. A planet orbiting a star, or a dwarf galaxy orbiting a major galaxy, moons, & asteroids orbiting a planet are natural satellite.


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Geosynchronous satellites

Also called geostationary, or simply GEO, it refers to the movement of communication satellites where the satellite circles the globe over the equator, in a movement that is synchronized with the earth's rotation. Because of this synchronization, the satellite appears to be stationary, and they also offer continuous operation in the area of visibility. These types of satellite are said to have a geostationary orbit, and it is the most common type of orbit for communications satellites.


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Ecology

Ecology is the study of environmental systems, or as it is sometimes called, the economy of nature. "Environmental" usually means relating to the natural, versus human-made world; the "systems" means that ecology is, by its very nature, not interested in just the components of nature individually but especially in how the parts interact.


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Biogegraphy

Biogeography is a branch of geography that studies the past and present distribution of the world's many species. It is usually considered to be a part of physical geography as it often relates to the examination of the physical environment and how it affects species and shaped their distribution across space. As such it studies the world's biomes and taxonomy - the naming of species. In addition, biogeography has strong ties to biology, ecology, evolution studies, climatology, and soil science.

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Xerophytes

BIOGEOGRAPHERS AND ecologists usually classify plants according to their water needs. Since the global distribution of water varies from dry to wet, plants also vary in their adaptation to the availability of water. Xerophytes are plants of the arid regions. The Greek prefix xero- means dry in contrast to hygro- (wet) and meso- (intermediate). Xerophytes as a class of plants are those that have adapted to dry environments by some mechanism to prevent water loss or to store water in their leaves.


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Physiographic divisions of India

Physiographic regions are defined on the basis of characteristics of landforms. These are basically the demarcation and description of regions from the viewpoint of geomorphology. India is divided into seven physiographic divisions namely

•   Northern Mountains and the North Eastern mountain range
•   The Indo Gangetic plain
•   Thar Desert
•   Central highlands and Peninsular plateau
•   East Coast 
•   West Coast
•   Islands


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WHY DO EARTHQUAKES HAPPEN

WHY DO EARTHQUAKES HAPPEN
The entire surface of the earth is made up of several wide, thin and rigid plate like blocks. These are in constant motion with respect to each other. This causes most earthquakes at edges of plates and a few earthquakes within the plate. The movement is very slow but in some places it is as much as about 5 cm per year. Earthquakes occur almost everywhere in the world. Some regions have more earthquakes than other parts of the globe. Earthquakes can be caused by other reasons too. Volcanic activity can shake the ground. Blasting, quarrying and mining can cause small earthquakes. Underground nuclear explosions are also man made earthquakes.        Tremendous amount of energy is released during an earthquake. This can cause widespread damage. Human dwellings have to be protected from earthquakes. Collapse of buildings in  an earthquake, specially in congested
areas, can cause havoc.

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The Troposphere

The Troposphere

The troposphere is where all weather takes place; it is the region of rising and falling packets of air. The air pressure at the top of the troposphere is only 10% of that at sea level (0.1 atmospheres). There is a thin buffer zone between the troposphere and the next layer called the tropopause.

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GIS

A geographic information system (GIS), geographical information system, or geospatial information system is the system that captures, stores, analyzes, manages, and presents data with reference to geographic location data. In the simplest terms, GIS is the merging of cartography, statistical analysis, and database technology.

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Condensation

Condensation occurs when water vapor changes to a liquid. For condensation to take place, the air must be saturated and there must be a surface on which the vapor can condense. In the air above the ground, tiny hygroscopic (water-absorbent) particles known as condensation nuclei serve as the surfaces on which water vapor can condense.



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Types of Rainfall

There are three types of Rain:

1- Relief
2- Convectional
3- Frontal

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Remote Sensing Satellites

Remote Sensing Satellites:
Remote sensing is observing and measuring our environment from a distance. So, remote sensing satellites are usually put into space to monitor resources important for humans. For example, remote sensing satellites might track animal migration, locate mineral deposits, watch agricultural crops for weather damage, or see how fast the forests are being cut down.
All of these things can be done best from space because a satellite in orbit can normally take photographs of large expanses of land all over the world. Since these satellites are able to take photographs and observe areas all over the globe, the satellite is able to monitor areas in which the climate is very harsh, or which are nearly impossible tor reach by land.

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Nonselective scattering

The final scattering mechanism of importance is called nonselective scattering. This occurs when the particles are much larger than the wavelength of the radiation. Water droplets and large dust particles can cause this type of scattering. Nonselective scattering gets its name from the fact that all wavelengths are scattered about equally.
This type of scattering causes fog and clouds to appear white to our eyes because blue, green, and red light are all scattered in approximately equal quantities (blue+green+red light = white light).

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Mie scattering

Mie scattering occurs when the particles are just about the same size as the wavelength of the radiation. Dust, pollen, smoke and water vapour are common causes of Mie scattering which tends to affect longer wavelengths than those affected by Rayleigh scattering. Mie scattering occurs mostly in the lower portions of the atmosphere where larger particles are more abundant, and dominates when cloud conditions are overcast.

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Rayleigh scattering

Rayleigh scattering occurs when particles are very small compared to the wavelength of the radiation. These could be particles such as small specks of dust or nitrogen and oxygen molecules. Rayleigh scattering causes shorter wavelengths of energy to be scattered much more than longer wavelengths. Rayleigh scattering is the dominant scattering mechanism in the upper atmosphere. The fact that the sky appears "blue" during the day is because of this phenomenon. As sunlight passes through the atmosphere, the shorter wavelengths (i.e. blue)
of the visible spectrum are scattered more than the other (longer) visible wavelengths. At sunrise and sunset the light has to travel farther through the atmosphere than at midday and the scattering of the shorter wavelengths is more complete; this leaves a greater proportion of the longer wavelengths to penetrate the atmosphere.

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Scattering

Scattering occurs when particles or large gas molecules present in the atmosphere interact with and cause the electromagnetic radiation to be redirected from its original path. How much scattering takes place depends on several factors including the wavelength of the radiation, the abundance of particles or gases, and the distance the radiation travels through the atmosphere. There are three (3) types of scattering which take place.

• Rayleigh scattering
• Mie scattering
• Nonselective scattering

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Remote Sensing: Visible spectrum

The light which our eyes - our "remote sensors" - can detect is part of the visible spectrum. It is important to recognize how small the visible portion is relative to the rest of the spectrum. There is a lot of radiation around us which is "invisible" to our eyes, but can be detected by other remote sensing instruments and used to our advantage. The visible wavelengths cover a range from approximately 0.4 to 0.7 μm. The longest
visible wavelength is red and the shortest is violet. Common wavelengths of what we perceive as particular colours from the visible portion of the spectrum are listed below. It is important to note that this is the only portion of the spectrum we can associate with the concept of colours.

􀂄 Violet: 0.4 - 0.446 μm
􀂄 Blue: 0.446 - 0.500 μm
􀂄 Green: 0.500 - 0.578 μm
􀂄 Yellow: 0.578 - 0.592 μm
􀂄 Orange: 0.592 - 0.620 μm
􀂄 Red: 0.620 - 0.7 μm

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Remote Sensing

"Remote sensing is the science (and to some extent, art) of acquiring information about the Earth's surface without actually being in contact with it. This is done by sensing and recording reflected or emitted energy and processing, analyzing, and applying that information."



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Cyclones and anticyclones

Cyclones and anticyclones are weather systems that involve masses of air moving in a spiraling motion. In a cyclone, air spirals inward, whereas in anticyclone, air spirals outward. Most types of cyclones and anticyclones are large features that move slowly across the Earth's surface, bringing changes in the weather as they move. These are referred to as traveling cyclones and traveling anticyclones

The circulation of weather systems is determined by their pressure which in turn determines whether air ascends as in the case of low pressure, or descends as in the case of high pressure. Where air rises, condensation and cloud formation results as seen here in the system developing off the west coast of Alaska. In an anticyclone, outspiraling air descends and is warmed adiabatically leading to clear conditions.

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air mass

An Air Mass is a large body of air with fairly uniform temperature and moisture characteristics. Air masses acquire their characteristics from their source regions.

Temperature is indicated using the upper case (for example T for Tropical or P for Polar). Moisture is indicated using the lower case (for example, c for continental (dry) or m for maritime (wet).

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insolation

The word 'insolation' is a contraction of "incoming solar radiation". It consists of a bundle of rays of radiant energy of different wavelengths. The sun emits radiant energy in the form of eletromagnetic waves. The longer waves, largely absorbed in the atmosphere, are called infra-red rays.

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continental shelf

The continental shelf is an undersea extension of a continent which can stretch for many miles out to sea in some cases. In other words a submerged border of a continent that slopes gradually and extends to a point of steeper descent to the ocean bottom.


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Atmosphere

The Atmosphere is a thick gaseous envelope which surrounds the earth from all sides and is attached to the earth’s surface by gravitational force.

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Oceanography

Oceanography is the science of our oceans that mixes biology, geology, chemistry, and physics (among other sciences) to unravel the mysteries of our seas.
71% of Earth's surface is covered with water, so it is important we know something about the water surrounding us.
The Earth has an area of approximately 197 million square miles of which 140 million square miles is water. The Earth is broken up into hemispheres…Northern and Southern.
In the Northern Hemisphere, 61% is water and 39% is land, thus it is called the "Land Hemisphere".
In the Southern Hemisphere, 81% is water and 19% is land, thus it is called the "Water Hemisphere".

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Tribes of India "NAGAS"

n

Originally, the Nagas were not known by the names of the tribes as they are known now, but by the name of a group of villages.

nThe Naga tribes were linked with the tribes in Assam and Myanmar.

nThe Nagas belong to the Indo-Mongoloid family.

 

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History of Nagas:

Tribes of India "GOND"

nHistory of Gonds:

Gonds settled in the Gondawa in the ninth and thirteenth century AD. In the fourteen century they ruled several parts of the central India. They built number of forts, palaces, temples, tanks and lakes during the rule of the Gonds dynasty. The Gondwana kingdom survived till late 16th century.

Language:

nGonds tribe speak Gondi language which is related to the Telgu and the other Dravidian languages. In the northern parts Gonds are often seen speaking the local Hindi and Marathi. Some of the Gonds in the southern parts also speak Parsi or Persian.

nGonds are mainly divided into four tribes namely –

n Raj Gonds

n Madia Gonds

n Dhurve Gonds

n Khatulwar Gonds.

Food:

The staples of the Gond diet are two millets known as kodo and kutki . These are either boiled to a broth or cooked to a dry cereal. Broth is preferred for the first two meals of the day and the dry cereal is eaten at night, often with vegetables. Vegetables are either grown in gardens or collected from forests along with roots and tubers. Honey is also gathered from forests. 

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Possibilism

Possibilism:-

It explains relationship between man & environment in a different way taking man as an active agent in environment. This is a belief that asserts that natural environment provides options the number of which increase as the knowledge & technology of a cultural group develop.

This point of view was named possibilism by Febvre who wrote: - The truth and only geographical problem is that of utilization of possibilities. There are no necessities, but everywhere possibilities.”

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Determinism/Environmentalism

Determinism or environmental determinism: -

The philosophies, approaches and practices which inform and flow from a concern with the environment are known as environmental determinism.

The determinists generally consider man as a passive agent on whom environmental factors are acting and determining his attitude, decision making process & lifestyles.

Some supporters of this theory & their view:-

Aristotle:- (Philosopher) explained the difference between North Europeans and Asians in terms of climatic causes.

Habitats of Europe were:- (Cold Climate) Brave & Courageous Unintelligent Lacking in Political org. Have capacity to rule their neighbors

Habitats of Asia were:- (Warm Climate) Lacking in courage Intelligent Politically strong Slavery is their destiny their natural state.

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Climate

Climate in general language is known as "average weather".
The weather conditions avail at a particular area for atleast 30 years, that is called the climate of that area.
There are some factors which influence the climate of an area:
Relief, Distance from sea, Distance from equator, Natural vegetation, etc..

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